The Pharisees exercised an enormous influence with the people, which was due to the fact that they spent their energies in the work of instructing the people in the Torah and in bringing religion to bear on the popular life. In marked contrast with those of the Sadducees, the Pharisee judgments on questions of Law were of a mild and compassionate character.
The positive achievement of the Pharisees in the domain of religious observance and institutions was enormous. They built up the synagogue service; they brought religion into the homes of the people; in particular, they invested the home with the sanctions of religion -- the home service on Passover night, for example, became a solemn festival of joy, in which the head of the household acted as priest.
The religious ideals of the Pharisees were essentially democratic in character. The Pharisees championed popular religious customs against the rigid conservatism of the Sadducean priesthood. A good instance of this is the solemn procession in which water was transferred from the pool of Siloam and poured out at the base of the altar at the Temple on the feast of Tabernacles. This custom was opposed by the Sadducees on the ground that it had no sanction in the Law, but they were unable to resist the popular will.
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| Sukkot | |
|---|---|
 A sukkah (plural: sukkot) in a kibbutz in Gush Etzion | |
| Official name | Hebrew: סוכות or סֻכּוֹת ("Booths, Tabernacles") |
| Observed by | |
| Type | Jewish, Samaritan |
| Significance | One of the three pilgrimage festivals shalosh regalim |
| Observances | Dwelling and eating festive meals in a sukkah; holding and carrying the four species; doing hakafot and praising God with hallel prayers in synagogues |
| Begins | 15th day of Tishrei |
| Ends | 21st day of Tishrei |
| Date | 15 Tishrei, 16 Tishrei, 17 Tishrei, 18 Tishrei, 19 Tishrei, 20 Tishrei, 21 Tishrei |
| 2023 date | Sunset, 29 September – nightfall, 6 October (7 October outside of Israel) |
| 2024 date | Sunset, 16 October – nightfall, 23 October (24 October outside of Israel)[1] |
| 2025 date | Sunset, 6 October – nightfall, 13 October (14 October outside of Israel) |
| 2026 date | Sunset, 25 September – nightfall, 2 October (3 October outside of Israel) |
| Related to | Shemini Atzeret, Simchat Torah |
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Sukkot,[a] also known as the Feast of Tabernacles or Feast of Booths, is a Torah-commanded holiday celebrated for seven days, beginning on the 15th day of the month of Tishrei. It is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals on which Israelites were commanded to make a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem. Biblically an autumn harvest festival and a commemoration of the Exodus from Egypt, Sukkot’s modern observance is characterized by festive meals in a sukkah, a temporary wood-covered hut.
The names used in the Torah are "Festival of Ingathering" (or "Harvest Festival", Hebrew: חַג הָאָסִיף, romanized: ḥag hāʾāsif)[2] and "Festival of Booths" (Hebrew: חג הסכות, romanized: Ḥag hasSukkōṯ).[3][2] This corresponds to the double significance of Sukkot. The one mentioned in the Book of Exodus is agricultural in nature—"Festival of Ingathering at the year's end" (Exodus 34:22)—and marks the end of the harvest time and thus of the agricultural year in the Land of Israel. The more elaborate religious significance from the Book of Leviticus is that of commemorating the Exodus and the dependence of the Israelites on the will of God (Leviticus 23:42–43).
As an extension of its harvest festival community roots, the idea of welcoming all guests and extending hospitality is intrinsic to the celebration. Actual and symbolic "guests" (Aramaic: ushpizin) are invited to participate by visiting the sukkah. Specifically, seven "forefathers" of the Jewish people are to be welcomed during the seven days of the festival, in this order: Day 1: Abraham; Day 2: Isaac; Day 3: Jacob; Day 4: Moses; Day 5: Aaron; Day 6: Joseph; Day 7: David.[4]
The holiday lasts seven days. The first day (and second day in the diaspora) is a Shabbat-like holiday when work is forbidden. This is followed by intermediate days called Chol HaMoed, during which certain work is permitted. The festival is closed with another Shabbat-like holiday called Shemini Atzeret (one day in the Land of Israel, two days in the diaspora, where the second day is called Simchat Torah).
The Hebrew word sukkoṯ is the plural of sukkah ('booth' or 'tabernacle') which is a walled structure covered with s'chach (plant material, such as overgrowth or palm leaves). A sukkah is the name of the temporary dwelling in which farmers would live during harvesting, reinforcing agricultural significance of the holiday introduced in the Book of Exodus. As stated in Leviticus, it is also reminiscent of the type of fragile dwellings in which the Israelites dwelled during their 40 years of travel in the desert after the Exodus from slavery in Egypt. Throughout the holiday, meals are eaten inside the sukkah and many people sleep there as well.
On each day of the holiday it is a mitzvah, or commandment, to 'dwell' in the sukkah and to perform a shaking ceremony with a lulav (a palm frond, then bound with myrtle and willow), and an etrog (the fruit of a citron tree) (collectively known as the four species). The fragile shelter, the 'now-three-item' lulav, the etrog, the revived Simchat Beit HaShoeivah celebration's focus on water and rainfall and the holiday's harvest festival roots draw attention to people's dependence on the natural environment.
Origins
[edit]
Sukkot shares similarities with older Canaanite new-year/harvest festivals, which included a seven-day celebration with sacrifices reminiscent of those in Num. 29:13–38 and "dwellings of branches," as well as processions with branches. The earliest references in the Bible (Ex. 23:16 & Ex. 34:22) make no mention of Sukkot, instead referring to it as "the festival of ingathering (hag ha'asif) at the end of the year, when you gather in the results of your work from the field," suggesting an agricultural origin. (The Hebrew term asif is also mentioned in the Gezer calendar as a two-month period in the autumn.)
The booths aspect of the festival may come from the shelters that were built in the fields by those involved in the harvesting process. Alternatively, it may come from the booths which pilgrims would stay in when they came in for the festivities at the cultic sanctuaries.[5][6][7][8][9] Finally, Lev. 23:40 talks about the taking of various branches (and a fruit), this too is characteristic of ancient agricultural festivals, which frequently included processions with branches.[7]: 17
Later, the festival was historicized by symbolic connection with the desert sojourn of exodus (Lev. 23:42–43).[6] The narratives of the exodus trek do not describe the Israelites building booths,[10][7]: 18 but they indicate that most of the trek was spent encamped at oases rather than traveling, and "sukkot" roofed with palm branches were a popular and convenient form of housing at such Sinai desert oases.[11]
Laws and customs
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Sukkot is a seven-day festival. Inside the Land of Israel, the first day is celebrated as a full festival with special prayer services and holiday meals. Outside the Land of Israel, the first two days are celebrated as full festivals. The seventh day of Sukkot is called Hoshana Rabbah ("Great Hoshana", referring to the tradition that worshippers in the synagogue walk around the perimeter of the sanctuary during morning services) and has a special observance of its own. The intermediate days are known as Chol HaMoed ("festival weekdays"). According to Halakha, some types of work are forbidden during Chol HaMoed.[12] In Israel many businesses are closed during this time.[13]
Throughout the week of Sukkot, meals are eaten in the sukkah. If a brit milah (circumcision ceremony) or Bar Mitzvah rises during Sukkot, the seudat mitzvah (obligatory festive meal) is served in the sukkah. Similarly, the father of a newborn boy greets guests to his Friday-night Shalom Zachar in the sukkah. Males sleep in the sukkah, provided the weather is tolerable. If it rains, the requirement of eating and sleeping in the sukkah is waived, except for eating there on the first night where every effort needs to be made to at least say kiddush (the sanctification prayer on wine) and eat an egg-sized piece of bread before going inside the house to finish the meal if the rain does not stop. Every day except the Sabbath, a blessing is recited over the Lulav and the Etrog.[14] Keeping of Sukkot is detailed in the Hebrew Bible (Nehemiah 8:13–18, Zechariah 14:16–19 and Leviticus 23:34–44); the Mishnah (Sukkah 1:1–5:8); the Tosefta (Sukkah 1:1–4:28); and the Jerusalem Talmud (Sukkah 1a–) and Babylonian Talmud (Sukkah 2a–56b).
Sukkah
[edit]
The sukkah walls can be constructed of any material that blocks wind (wood, canvas, aluminum siding, sheets). The walls can be free-standing or include the sides of a building or porch. There must be at least two and a partial wall.[15] The roof must be of organic material, known as s'chach, such as leafy tree overgrowth, schach mats or palm fronds – plant material that is no longer connected with the earth.[16] It is customary to decorate the interior of the sukkah with hanging decorations of the four species[17] as well as with attractive artwork.[18]
Prayers
[edit]
Prayers during Sukkot include the reading of the Torah every day, reciting the Mussaf (additional) service after morning prayers, reciting Hallel, and adding special additions to the Amidah and Grace after Meals. In addition, the service includes rituals involving the Four Species. The lulav and etrog are not used on the Sabbath.[19]
On the Festival days, as well as the Sabbath of Chol Hamoed, some communities recite piyyutim.[20]
Hoshanot
[edit]
On each day of the festival, worshippers walk around the synagogue carrying the Four Species while reciting special prayers known as Hoshanot.[19]: 852 This takes place either after the morning's Torah reading or at the end of Mussaf. This ceremony commemorates the willow ceremony at the Temple in Jerusalem, in which willow branches were piled beside the altar with worshippers parading around the altar reciting prayers.[21]
Ushpizin and ushpizata
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A custom originating with Lurianic Kabbalah is to recite the ushpizin prayer to "invite" one of seven "exalted guests" into the sukkah.[22] These ushpizin (Aramaic אושפיזין 'guests'), represent the "seven shepherds of Israel": Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, Joseph and David, each of whom correlate with one of the seven lower Sephirot (this is why Joseph, associated with Yesod, follows Moses and Aaron, associated with Netzach and Hod respectively, even though he precedes them in the narrative). According to tradition, each night a different guest enters the sukkah followed by the other six. Each of the ushpizin has a unique lesson to teach that parallels the spiritual focus of the day on which they visit, based on the Sephirah associated with that character.[23]
Some streams of Reconstructionist Judaism also recognize a set of seven female shepherds of Israel, called variously Ushpizot (using modern Hebrew feminine pluralization), or Ushpizata (in reconstructed Aramaic). Several lists of seven have been proposed. The Ushpizata are sometimes coidentified with the seven prophetesses of Judaism: Sarah, Miriam, Deborah, Hannah, Abigail, Hulda, and Esther.[24] Some lists seek to relate each female leader to one of the Sephirot, to parallel their male counterparts of the evening. One such list (in the order they would be invoked, each evening) is: Ruth, Sarah, Rebecca, Miriam, Deborah, Tamar, and Rachel.[25]
Chol HaMoed intermediate days
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The second through seventh days of Sukkot (third through seventh days outside the Land of Israel) are called Chol HaMoed (חול המועד – lit. "festival weekdays"). These days are considered by halakha to be more than regular weekdays but less than festival days. In practice, this means that all activities that are needed for the holiday—such as buying and preparing food, cleaning the house in honor of the holiday, or traveling to visit other people's sukkot or on family outings—are permitted by Jewish law. Activities that will interfere with relaxation and enjoyment of the holiday—such as laundering, mending clothes, engaging in labor-intensive activities—are not permitted.[26][27]
Religious Jews often treat Chol HaMoed as a vacation period, eating nicer than usual meals in their sukkah, entertaining guests, visiting other families in their sukkot, and taking family outings. Many synagogues and Jewish centers also offer events and meals in their sukkot during this time to foster community and goodwill.[28][29]
On the Shabbat which falls during the week of Sukkot (or in the event when the first day of Sukkot is on Shabbat in the Land of Israel), the Book of Ecclesiastes is read during morning synagogue services in Ashkenazic communities. (Diaspora Ashkenazic communities read it the second Shabbat {eighth day} when the first day of sukkot is on Shabbat.) This Book's emphasis on the ephemeralness of life ("Vanity of vanities, all is vanity...") echoes the theme of the sukkah, while its emphasis on death reflects the time of year in which Sukkot occurs (the "autumn" of life). The penultimate verse reinforces the message that adherence to God and His Torah is the only worthwhile pursuit. (Cf. Ecclesiastes 12:13,14.)[30]
Hakhel assembly
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In the days of the Temple in Jerusalem, all Israelite, and later Jewish men, women, and children on pilgrimage to Jerusalem for the festival would gather in the Temple courtyard on the first day of Chol HaMoed Sukkot to hear the Jewish king read selections from the Torah. This ceremony, which was mandated in Deuteronomy 31:10–13, was held every seven years, in the year following the Shmita (Sabbatical) year. This ceremony was discontinued after the destruction of the Temple, but it has been revived in Israel since 1952 on a smaller scale.[31]
Simchat Beit HaShoevah water-drawing celebration
[edit]During the intermediate days of Sukkot, gatherings of music and dance, known as Simchat Beit HaShoeivah (Celebration of the Place of Water-Drawing), take place. This commemorates the celebration that accompanied the drawing of the water for the water-libation on the Altar, an offering unique to Sukkot, when water was carried up the Jerusalem pilgrim road from the Pool of Siloam to the Temple in Jerusalem.[32]
Hoshana Rabbah (Great Supplication)
[edit]The seventh day of Sukkot is known as Hoshana Rabbah (Great Supplication). This day is marked by a special synagogue service in which seven circuits are made by worshippers holding their Four Species, reciting additional prayers. In addition, a bundle of five willow branches is beaten on the ground.[19]: 859 [21]
Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah
[edit]The holiday immediately following Sukkot is known as Shemini Atzeret (lit. "Eighth [Day] of Assembly"). Shemini Atzeret is usually viewed as a separate holiday.[33] In the Diaspora a second additional holiday, Simchat Torah ("Joy of the Torah"), is celebrated. In the Land of Israel, Simchat Torah is celebrated on Shemini Atzeret. On Shemini Atzeret people leave their sukkah and eat their meals inside the house. Outside the Land of Israel, many eat in the sukkah without making the blessing. The sukkah is not used on Simchat Torah.[34]
Sukkot in the generations of Israel
[edit]Jeroboam's feast
[edit]According to 1 Kings 12:32–33, King Jeroboam, first king of the rebellious northern kingdom, instituted a feast on the fifteenth day of the eighth month in imitation of the feast of Sukkot in Judah, and pilgrims went to Bethel instead of Jerusalem to make thanksgiving offerings. Jeroboam feared that continued pilgrimages from the northern kingdom to Jerusalem could lead to pressure for reunion with Judah:
Nehemiah
[edit] | You can help expand this section with text translated from the corresponding article in Hebrew. (May 2023) Click [show] for important translation instructions. |
Hannukah
[edit] | You can help expand this section with text translated from the corresponding article in Hebrew. (May 2023) Click [show] for important translation instructions. |
In Christianity
[edit]Sukkot is celebrated by a number of Christian denominations that observe holidays from the Old Testament. These groups base this on the belief that Jesus celebrated Sukkot (see the Gospel of John 7). The holiday is celebrated according to its Hebrew calendar dates. The first mention of observing the holiday by Christian groups dates to the 17th century, among the sect of the Subbotniks in Russia.[35]
Academic views
[edit]De Moor has suggested that there are links between Sukkot and the Ugaritic New Year festival, in particular the Ugaritic custom of erecting two rows of huts built of branches on the temple roof as temporary dwelling houses for their gods.[36][37]
Some have pointed out that the original Thanksgiving holiday had many similarities with Sukkot in the Bible.[38][39]
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The term Pool of Siloam (Hebrew: בְּרֵכַת הַשִּׁילוֹחַ, Bərēḵat haŠīlōaḥ, Arabic: بِرْكَة سِلْوَان Birka Silwān) refers to a number of rock-cut pools, located outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem to the southeast. The pools were fed by the waters of the Gihon Spring, carried there by the Siloam Tunnel.[1][2]
The Lower Pool or "Old Pool" was historically known as Birket el Hamra, literally "the red pool".
History
[edit]
During the Second Temple period, the Pool of Siloam was centrally located in the Jerusalem suburb of Acra (Hebrew: חקרא), also known as the Lower City.[3] Today, the Pool of Siloam is the lowest place in altitude within the historical city of Jerusalem, with an elevation of about 625 metres (2,051 ft) above sea level.[4] The ascent from it unto the Temple Mount meant a gradient of 115 metres (377 ft) in altitude at a linear distance of about 634 metres (2,080 ft), with a mean elevation in the Temple Mount of 740 metres (2,430 ft) above sea level.[4] According to the Jerusalem Talmud (Hagigah), the Pool of Siloam was the starting point for pilgrims who made the annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and where they ascended by foot to the inner court of the Temple Mount to bring an offertory to the Temple Court.[5] The Pool of Siloam (perhaps referring to the Lower Pool) was used by pilgrims for ritual purification before visiting the Temple enclosure.[6]
Hezekiah
[edit]The Pool of Siloam was built during the reign of Hezekiah (715–687/6 BCE), to leave besieging armies without access to the spring's waters. The pool was fed by the newly constructed Siloam tunnel. An older Canaanite tunnel had been vulnerable to attackers, so, under threat from the Assyrian king Sennacherib, Hezekiah sealed the old outlet of the Gihon Spring and built the new underground Siloam tunnel in place of the older tunnel (Books of Chronicles, 2 Chronicles 32:2–4).[non-primary source needed]
During this period the Pool of Siloam was sometimes known as the Lower Pool (Book of Isaiah, Isaiah 22:9),[7] as opposed to a more ancient Upper Pool (Books of Kings, 2 Kings 18:17, Isaiah 7:3)[7] formerly fed by the older Canaanite tunnel.
Second Temple period
[edit]
The pool was reconstructed no earlier than the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BCE), although it is not clear whether this pool was in the same location as the earlier pool built by Hezekiah – if so, all traces of the earlier construction have been destroyed. The pool remained in use during the time of Jesus. According to the Gospel of John, Jesus sent a man blind from birth to the pool in order to complete his healing.[8] As a freshwater reservoir, the pool would have been a major gathering place for ancient Jews making religious pilgrimages to the city. Some scholars, influenced by Jesus commanding the blind man to wash in the pool, suggest that it was probably used as a mikvah (ritual bath).[9]
The pool was destroyed and covered after the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 CE. Dating was indicated by a number of coins discovered on the stones of the patio near the pool to the north, all from the days of the Great Revolt. The latest coin is dated with "4 years to the day of the Great Revolt", meaning the year 69 CE. In the years following the destruction, winter rains washed alluvium from the hills to the valley and down the slopes of Mount Zion to the west of the pool; the pool was filled with silt layers (up to 4 m in some places) until it was covered completely.
Late Roman and Byzantine periods
[edit]
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Roman sources mention a Shrine of the Four Nymphs (Tetranymphon), a nymphaeum built by Hadrian during the construction of Aelia Capitolina in AD 135[10][11][12] and mentioned in Byzantine works such as the 7th-century Chronicon Paschale; other nymphaea built by Hadrian, such as that at Sagalassos, are very similar.[13] It is unlikely that this shrine was built on the site of the Second Temple Pool of Siloam, but it may have been a precursor to the Byzantine reconstruction.
In the 5th century, a pool was constructed at the end of the Siloam Tunnel, at the behest of the Empress of the Byzantine Empire, Aelia Eudocia. This pool survives to the present day, surrounded on all sides by a high stone wall with an arched entrance to Hezekiah's Tunnel. The pool is around 70 yards (64 m) from the Second Temple (or Lower) Pool of Siloam, and is significantly smaller. Until the discovery of the Second Temple pool, this pool was wrongly thought to be the one described in the New Testament and Second Temple sources.
Discovery in the 21st century
[edit]
The pool was rediscovered during an excavation work for a sewer in the autumn of 2004, by Ir David Foundation workers, following a request and directions given by archaeologists Eli Shukron accompanied by Ori Orbach from the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. Archaeologists Eli Shukron and Ronny Reich (working with the Israel Antiquities Authority) uncovered stone steps, and it became obvious that these steps were likely to have been part of the Second Temple period pool. Excavations commenced and confirmed the initial supposition; the find was formally announced on August 9, 2005, and received substantial international media attention.[14][15]
The excavations also revealed that the pool was 225 ft (69 m) wide, and that steps existed on at least three sides of the pool. Close to two decades after the initial discovery a portion of this pool remained unexcavated, as the land above was owned by a nearby Greek Orthodox church and was occupied by an orchard known as the King's Garden (compare Nehemiah 3:15). During 2023 the unexcavated portion was revealed through excavations directed by Nahshon Szanton of the Israel Antiquities Authority.
The pool is not perfectly rectangular, but a soft trapezoid. There are three sets of five steps, two leading to a platform, before the bottom is reached, and it has been suggested that the steps were designed to accommodate various water levels. The pool is stone-lined, but underneath, there is evidence of an earlier version that was merely plastered (to help it retain water). Coins from the reign of Alexander Jannaeus were found embedded in the plaster lining of the pool, and therefore provide a secure earliest date for the pool's (re-)construction.
Earlier excavations
[edit]Archaeologists excavating the site around the Pool of Siloam in the 1880s have noted that there was a stairway of 34 rock-hewn steps to the west of the Pool of Siloam leading up from a court in front of the Pool of Siloam.[16] The breadth of the steps varies from 27 ft (8.2 m) at the top to 22 ft (6.7 m) at the bottom.[16]
The remnants of an ancient wall dating to the Bronze Age were unearthed near the older Pool of Siloam, known also as the "Lower Pool," and locally as Birket al-Ḥamrah, during the excavations conducted by F. J. Bliss and A. C. Dickie (1894–1897).[17] At the "Lower Pool" of Siloam there was a weir (levee), used to raise the level of water upstream or to regulate its flow.[17] Conrad Schick's research in connection with a partially rock-hewn aqueduct related to the water system of Siloam has led researchers to conclude that the Lower Pool, Birket al-Ḥamrah, received water directly from the "Fountain of the Virgin" (Gihon Spring) at some period and which Schick places prior to the completion of the Siloam Tunnel.[18][19]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "Biblical site where Jesus healed blind man excavated for public view: 'Affirms Scripture'". 2 January 2023.
- ^ "Biblical site where Jesus healed blind man excavated for public view: 'Affirms Scripture'". Fox News. 30 December 2022.
- ^ Josephus, The Jewish War 6.6.3 (6.351; 6.7.2. (6.363)
- ^ a b Arie Itzhaki (1980). Rubenstein, Chaim (ed.). Israel Guide – Jerusalem (in Hebrew). Vol. 10. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, in affiliation with the Israel Ministry of Defence. p. 165. OCLC 745203905.
- ^ Moses Margolies' commentary Pnei Moshe on Jerusalem Talmud (Hagigah 1:1 3a–b), s.v. נישמעינה מן הדא, being an explanation of Mishnah (Hagigah 1:1), "Anyone that cannot...go up from Jerusalem to the Temple Mount."
- ^ Galor, Katharina (2017). Finding Jerusalem: Archaeology between Science and Ideology. University of California Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-520-96807-3., Chapter 7: The City of David / Silwan
- ^ a b The City of David; revisiting early excavations; English translations of reports by Raymond Weill and L-H. Vincent/ notes and comments by Ronny Reich; edited by Hershel Shanks. pp. 197–227.
- ^ John 9
- ^ John 9:6–11
- ^ Dave Winter, Israel handbook, (1999), p. 180.
- ^ André Grabar, Martyrium, (1946), volume 1, p. 193.
- ^ E. Wiegand, The Theodosian Monastery, (1929), volume 11, pp. 50–72
- ^ for example, see this view Archived 2018-11-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Archaeologists identify traces of 'miracle' pool". NBC News. 23 December 2004. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
- ^ Rossner, Rena (26 January 2006). "The once and future city". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
They have also discovered thousands of fish bones that, together with the bullae were found in an area that Reich and Shukran believe to be the Shiloah Pool, used as a ritual bath for the Temple Mount, and a tiled road which ends at the pool and has its origins near the Temple Mount. Ostensibly, this is the road that worshippers used to go back and forth between the Shiloah Pool and the Temple Mount.
- ^ a b Bliss, F. J. (1897). "Eleventh Report of the Excavations at Jerusalem". Quarterly Statement – Palestine Exploration Fund. 29: 11, 13.
- ^ a b Yitzhaki, Arieh [in Hebrew] (1980). "City of David (עיר דוד)". In Chaim Rubenstein (ed.). Israel Guide – Jerusalem (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country) (in Hebrew). Vol. 10. Jerusalem, Israel: Keter Publishing House, in affiliation with the Israel Ministry of Defence. pp. 166–167. OCLC 745203905.
- ^ PEF (1886). "The Herodian Temple, According to the Treatise Middoth and Flavius Josephus". Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 18 (2): 92–113. doi:10.1179/peq.1886.18.2.92.
- ^ cf. Dalman, Gustaf (2020). Nadia Abdulhadi-Sukhtian (ed.). Work and Customs in Palestine, volume II. Vol. 2 (Agriculture). Translated by Robert Schick. Ramallah: Dar Al Nasher. p. 280. ISBN 978-9950-385-84-9., who writes that the King's Garden was irrigated originally through a canal with side openings, which led the water of the Gihon spring at the edge of the valley to the south, until Hezekiah's Tunnel created a more southern exit for the water, from which the garden could then be irrigated.
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Yom Kippur (/ˌjɒm kɪˈpʊər, ˌjɔːm ˈkɪpər, ˌjoʊm-/ YOM kip-OOR, YAWM KIP-ər, YOHM-;[1] Hebrew: יוֹם כִּפּוּר Yōm Kippūr [ˈjom kiˈpuʁ], lit. 'Day of Atonement') is the holiest day of the year in Judaism.[2][3][4] It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei,[5] corresponding to a date in late September or early October.
For traditional Jewish people, it is primarily centered on atonement and repentance. The day's main observances consist of full fasting and asceticism, both accompanied by extended prayer services (usually at synagogue) and sin confessions. Many Jewish denominations, such as Reconstructionist Judaism (vs. Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, etc.), focus less on sins and more on one's goals and accomplishments and setting yearly intentions.
Alongside the related holiday of Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur is one of the two components of the High Holy Days of Judaism. It is also the last of the Ten Days of Repentance.
Name
[edit]The formal Hebrew name of the holiday is Yom HaKippurim, 'day [of] the atonements'.[6] This name is used in the Bible,[7] Mishnah,[8] and Shulchan Aruch.[9] The word kippurim 'atonement' is one of many Biblical Hebrew words which, while using a grammatical plural form, refers to a singular abstract concept.[6]
Beginning in the classical period, the singular form kippur began to be used in piyyut, for example in Unetanneh Tokef, alongside the standard plural form kippurim. Use of kippur spread in the medieval period, with Yom Kippur (יום כיפור) becoming the holiday's name in Yiddish and Kippur (כיפור) in Ladino. In modern Hebrew, Yom Kippur or simply Kippur is the common name, while Yom HaKippurim (יום הכיפורים) is used in formal writing.[6]
In older English texts, the translation "Day of Atonement" is often used.[10][11]
In the Torah
[edit]The Torah calls the day Yom HaKippurim (יוֹם הַכִּיפּוּרִים), and decrees fasting ("affliction of the soul") and a strict prohibition of work on the tenth day of the seventh month, later known as Tishrei.[12] The laws of Yom Kippur are commanded by God to Moses in three passages in the Torah:
- Leviticus 16:1–34: Aaron may only enter the sanctuary by performing a complex sacrificial procedure, later known as the Yom Kippur Temple service. This service must be performed yearly on the date of Yom Kippur, while the people are to fast and not work on this date.[13]
- Leviticus 23:26–32: The tenth day of Tishrei is a holy day of atonement. A Temple sacrifice must be offered, while the people must fast and not work, "on the ninth day from evening until evening".[14]
- Numbers 29:7–11: The tenth day of Tishrei is a holy day; one must fast and not work. The mussaf (additional) sacrifice for the day is specified.[15]
Yom Kippur is mentioned briefly in another context: on Yom Kippur of the Jubilee year the shofar was to be blown.[16] According to some, this is the source for the current custom of blowing the shofar at the conclusion of Yom Kippur.[17]
Temple service
[edit]When the Temple in Jerusalem stood, Yom Kippur was the occasion of an elaborate sacrificial service, as commanded by Leviticus 16. The rabbis summarized the laws of this service in Mishnah tractate Yoma, and they appear in contemporary traditional Jewish prayer books for Yom Kippur, and are studied as part of a traditional Jewish Yom Kippur worship service.[18] The Mussaf prayer on Yom Kippur includes a section known as the Avodah, where a poem is recited describing this Temple service.
Significance
[edit]High Holy Days
[edit]Yom Kippur is one of the two High Holy Days, or Days of Awe (Hebrew yamim noraim), alongside Rosh Hashanah (which falls nine days previously).[19] According to Jewish tradition, on Rosh Hashanah God inscribes each person's fate for the coming year into the Book of Life, and waits until Yom Kippur to "seal" the verdict.[20] This process is described dramatically in the poem Unetanneh Tokef, which is recited on Rosh Hashanah in the Ashkenazic and Italian rites and on Yom Kippur in the Eastern Ashkenazic and Italian rites:
During the Days of Awe, a Jew reflects on the year, goals, and past actions, how his or her behavior has possibly hurt others and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God and against other human beings.
Repentance (Teshuva)
[edit]| Repentance in Judaism Teshuva "Return" |
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| Repentance, atonement and higher ascent in Judaism |
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| In the Hebrew Bible |
| Aspects |
| In the Jewish calendar |
| In contemporary Judaism |
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Repentance in Judaism (Hebrew: Teshuva), traditionally, consists of regretting having committed the sin, resolving not to commit that sin in the future, and confessing that sin before God.[21]
While repentance for one's sins can and should be done at any time, it is considered especially desirable during the Ten Days of Repentance between Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, and particularly on Yom Kippur itself.[22] Thus, the Yom Kippur prayers contain extended confessions which list varieties of errors and sins, and to which one can add their own missteps, along with requests for forgiveness from God.
According to the Talmud, "Yom Kippur atones for sins done against God (bein adam leMakom), but does not atone for sins done against other human beings (bein adam lechavero) until the other person has been appeased."[23] Therefore, it is considered imperative to repair the harm that one has done to others before or during Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur is described in the prayers as "a day of creating love and brotherhood, a day of abandoning jealousy and strife".[24] It is said that "if one does not remove hatred [from their heart] on Yom Kippur, their prayers are not heard".[25]
Thirteen attributes
[edit]According to the Bible, after the golden calf sin, Moses descended from Mount Sinai and broke the Tablets of Stone, which contained the Ten Commandments and symbolized the covenant with God.[26] After God agreed to forgive the people's sin, Moses was told to return to Mount Sinai for a second 40-day period, in order to receive a second set of tablets.[27] According to rabbinic tradition, the date Moses descended with the second set of tablets was Yom Kippur. On this day Moses announced to the people that they had been forgiven; as a result the Torah fixed this date as a permanent holiday of forgiveness.[28][29][30]
The new covenant, which God announced by proclaiming the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy to Moses, is textually similar to the covenant of the Ten Commandments except that God's nature is described as merciful and forgiving, rather than zealous.[31] When the Jewish people sinned in later eras, prophets would repeatedly quote the Thirteen Attributes to God as a reminder of God's commitment to mercy and forgiveness.[32] This is continued to the present day, as recitation of the Thirteen Attributes remains an important part of the Yom Kippur prayers (in Maariv and Neilah).
Closeness to God
[edit]While many of the observances of Yom Kippur (such as fasting and long prayers) can be difficult, there is also a tradition in which they are interpreted positively, as indications of closeness of God. Various sources compare the observances of Yom Kippur – fasting, barefootness (not wearing leather shoes), standing (in prayer), particular manners of prayer, even the peace that exists between Jews on this day – with the behavior of angels, suggesting that on Yom Kippur Jews become like angels in heaven, purified and close to God and not limited by physicality.[33][34]
Yom Kippur was also unique as a time of closeness to God in the Yom Kippur Temple service. Yom Kippur was the only occasion on which the High Priest of Israel was allowed to enter the Holy of Holies, the innermost chamber of the Temple in Jerusalem, where God's presence was said to dwell. On Yom Kippur the High Priest entered the Holy of Holies several times, first to create a cloud of incense smoke in which (the Bible promises) God would reveal Himself without being seen,[35] and later to offer sacrifices of atonement.[36]
While the encounter with God and the atonement may appear to be unrelated, in fact they are mutually dependent. On one hand, the priest is only worthy to approach God when in a state of purity, with the sins of the people being forgiven. On the other hand, only by approaching God with an intimate, personal request can God be persuaded to abandon justice for mercy, permitting the purification to take place.[37][38]
According to the Torah, the Yom Kippur Temple service was commanded in wake of the deaths of Nadab and Abihu on the eighth day of the Tabernacle inauguration.[39] Not only was this eighth day the occasion of the Yom Kippur command, but the eighth day was also similar in its nature to Yom Kippur, both in biblical texts (e.g. the sacrifices offered on each day) and in rabbinic interpretation.[40] The purpose of the eighth day was the revelation of God's presence to the people;[40]: 14 similarly, the Yom Kippur service was a unique opportunity for the people's representative to obtain closeness with God.[41]
A midrash compares the Yom Kippur prayers to a verse from the Song of Songs, describing a woman who rises from bed at night to begin a romantic encounter with her lover. With each Yom Kippur prayer, it is implied, Jews approach closer to God:
Using a similar metaphor, the Mishnah describes Yom Kippur as a wedding date, as on this date Moses returned having reestablished the covenant between God and Israel.[43] Along with Tu B'Av, Yom Kippur was historically considered one of the two happiest days of the Jewish year, for on this day Jews receive forgiveness for their sins, and on this date the covenant with God was reestablished.[44]
Purification
[edit]In Leviticus 16:30, the Torah summarizes the purpose of Yom Kippur as follows:
There are two forms of impurity in Judaism (see Tumah and taharah): ritual impurity (e.g. when one touches a corpse) and moral impurity (when one commits a serious sin).[46][47] While the Yom Kippur Temple service did purify the Temple if it had become ritually impure,[48] the emphasis of the day is on the Jewish people's purification from moral impurity.[45]
Leviticus 16:30 mentions purification twice. According to Netziv, the first mention is a promise that God will purify Israel on this day, while the second is a command, calling on Israel to purify themselves through repentance.[49] Thus, on this day Jews do their utmost to repent. But if, by the end of the day, they have reached the limits of their ability and are still morally flawed, God extends them forgiveness and purification anyway.[50]
Jeremiah 17:13 states that "Israel's hope (mikveh) is in God". According to Rabbi Akiva, this verse alludes to a ritual purification bath (also pronounced mikveh), and thus on Yom Kippur God metaphorically becomes a mikveh in which Israel immerses and purifies itself.[51] This idea is symbolized by immersion in an actual mikveh. In the Yom Kippur Temple service, the High Priest would immerse upon putting on and taking off his white Yom Kippur garments;[52] the rabbis counted no fewer than five immersions over the course of the day's service.[53] Among modern-day Jews, too, there is a custom of immersion before Yom Kippur (though not on Yom Kippur itself, as bathing is forbidden in normal circumstances).[54]
When the scapegoat was selected on Yom Kippur to symbolically carry the people's sins to the desert, a crimson cord was tied around its horns.[55] While the practical purpose of this cord was to distinguish the scapegoat from the goat which was to be slaughtered, it also symbolized the sin which the scapegoat was carrying away.[56] Isaiah 1:18 promises that if the Jewish people repents, "if [their] sins are like crimson, they shall become white as snow." According to tradition, in some years the scapegoat's cord would miraculously turn white to indicate that the people's sins were forgiven and purification achieved in that year.[57]
Jewish unity
[edit]Yom Kippur is considered a day of Jewish unity. In Kol Nidre, in which vows are released, vows of excommunication against sinning Jews were similarly lifted and these "transgressors" were allowed to pray alongside other Jews.[58] According to the Talmud, "Any fast in which Jewish sinners do not also participate is not a valid fast".[59]
Similarly, the Mishnah describes Yom Kippur as a day on which men and women would once meet each other in the vineyards in order to arrange marriages.[43] While this story is surprising given the generally somber nature of the day, it is based on the Biblical episode where the oath against marrying Benjaminites was circumvented by allowing them to take women from the vineyards as wives, and thus indicates the day's theme of abandoning grudges in order for the Jewish people to be reunited.[60]: 29–30
Customs
[edit]Erev Yom Kippur
[edit]
On the day preceding Yom Kippur, known as Erev Yom Kippur (lit. 'eve [of] day [of] atonement'), a number of activities are customarily performed in preparation for Yom Kippur. These activities generally relate to the themes of the holiday, but are forbidden or impractical to do on Yom Kippur itself.
According to the Talmud, "Yom Kippur does not atone for sins between a person and his fellow until he has appeased his fellow."[61] Thus, it is common practice on Erev Yom Kippur to request forgiveness from other individuals for misdeeds one has done to them. The Talmud records no less than 14 stories attesting to the importance of the day for repairing relationships with one's spouses, parents, children, coworkers, the poor, and other individuals.[62] The day before a major Jewish holiday is often devoted towards preparing for that holiday (as with burning chametz before Passover or obtaining the Four Species before Sukkot); for Yom Kippur, the appropriate preparation is to seek forgiveness from one's fellow man.[62] Nevertheless, one should not ask forgiveness if this will cause further harm (for example, by bringing up an insult the victim was unaware of).[63]
According to halakha, one must eat on Erev Yom Kippur. A variety of reasons have been suggested for this requirement, among them:[63][64]
- Most obviously, eating well before the fast will make it easier to complete the fast in good health.
- Eating before the fast will actually make the fast subjectively more difficult, due to "withdrawal" from the previous day's feast, and thus increase a person's level of "affliction" on this day (though it is not agreed that a person should in fact attempt to increase their affliction beyond the basic requirements[65]).
- In general, Jewish holidays are celebrated with festive meals. Since a meal celebrating Yom Kippur cannot be held on the day itself, it is held beforehand.
- One celebrates the forgiveness they are about to receive for their sins, thus demonstrating that they are in fact bothered by their sins, and thus are more deserving of forgiveness.
Kreplach are traditionally served at the pre-fast meal.[66] Also, it is common to ask for and receive lekach on Erev Yom Kippur.[67]
Many Orthodox men immerse themselves in a mikveh on this day.[68] Opinions differ on whether this is a technical act to remove ritual impurity, or else a symbolic one to symbolize one's cleansing from sin on Yom Kippur.[63]
The kapparot ritual, in which either money or a chicken is given to charity, is performed by some on Erev Yom Kippur as a means to enhance atonement.
Prior to this day's morning prayer service (Shacharit), selichot prayers are recited, as they have been for the entire High Holiday period. In the afternoon prayer (Mincha), the long confession is recited, just as it is on Yom Kippur itself. This confession is recited before the last Erev Yom Kippur meal (the "Separation Meal" - in Hebrew se'udah hamafseket or aruha hamafseket),[69] in case one becomes intoxicated at this meal and is unable to confess properly afterwards, or else because a person might choke to death at that meal and die without confessing (seemingly an unlikely possibility, but one which reminds a person of their mortality).[63] Nevertheless, some recommend repeating the Vidui immediately before Kol Nidrei if time allows.[70]
Fasting and asceticism
[edit]The Torah commands Jews to "afflict themselves" (ve'initem et nafshoteichem) on Yom Kippur.[71] While these verses do not explicitly mention the form of affliction, the phrase "afflicting oneself" frequently appears elsewhere in connection with fasting or lack of food,[72] and public fast days for repentance were a common practice in Biblical times.[73] According to the Jewish oral tradition, the Yom Kippur "affliction" consists of the following five prohibitions:[74]
- Fasting (no eating and drinking)
- No wearing of leather shoes
- No bathing or washing
- No anointing oneself with perfumes or lotions
- No sex
In traditional custom, the fast is required of males over age 13 and females over age 12.[75] However, fasting is waived in the case of dangerous medical conditions (pikuach nefesh),[76] and in such a case one is actually required to break the fast.[77] Just as it is a mitzvah to fast on Yom Kippur, it may also be a mitzvah to eat or drink on Yom Kippur to safeguard a person's health.[78] In such situations, though, it is preferable (if the medical situation allows for it) to consume only small amounts of food or drink at a time.[79][80]
Fasting, along with the other restrictions, begins at sundown, and ends after nightfall the following day. One should add a few minutes to the beginning and end of the day, called tosefet Yom Kippur, lit. 'addition to Yom Kippur'.
Yom Kippur is one of the only occasions when fasting is permitted on Shabbat.[81][82]
Symbolism
[edit]A number of different interpretations of these restrictions have been suggested.
In one approach, fasting replaces animal sacrifices. Fasting causes one's fat and blood to be diminished, just as the fat and blood of a sacrifice were burned on the altar. Thus, the fast is a form of sacrifice which can atone for sin like the Temple sacrifices once did.[83]
Other approaches suggest that the prohibitions represent not suffering, but rather special holiness. For example, on Yom Kippur, Jews are said to become like angels. Just as angels do not need to eat, drink, or wear shoes, so too Jews do not engage on these activities on Yom Kippur.[33] By detaching themselves from physical needs, Jews become purified and resemble angels.[34][84]
Similarly, the prohibitions allude to the experience of Moses on Mount Sinai, who did not eat or drink while receiving the Torah and while receiving forgiveness for the people's sins.[85]
Similarly, the prohibitions have been interpreted as a return to the purity of the biblical Garden of Eden. Upon leaving Eden shoes became necessary for the first time ("thorns and thistles will grow in your way...the snake will raise its head (to bite you) and you will give your heel (to crush it)"[86]); thus on Yom Kippur Jews do not wear (leather) shoes. While in Eden food and drink were easily obtained, but after the expulsion man must work for food "by the sweat of [his] brow"; thus food and drink are refrained from on Yom Kippur, as well as washing, and the use of cosmetics to remove sweat or its odor. In Eden death was unknown and procreation unnecessary; similarly on Yom Kippur marital relations are avoided.[87]
According to Maimonides, the purpose of fasting (and the restriction on work) is to remove distractions from the task of repentance.[88]
By refraining from these activities, the body is uncomfortable but can still survive. The soul is considered to be the life force in a body. Therefore, by making one's body uncomfortable, one's soul is uncomfortable. By feeling pain, one can feel how others feel when they are in pain.[89]
Prohibition on work
[edit]The Torah calls Yom Kippur a day of rest (shabbat shabbaton) on which work is prohibited.[90] Thus, the activities forbidden on Shabbat are also forbidden on Yom Kippur: the 39 categories of work as well as the rabbinic Shabbat prohibitions.[91]
Other observances
[edit]Wearing white clothing is traditional to symbolize one's purity on this day.[92] Various reasons have been suggested for this custom:
- On Yom Kippur, Jews are similar to the angels in heaven who are said to wear white.[93]
- To alludes to the verse "If your sins are like crimson, they shall become white as snow" (Isaiah 1:18)[85]
- To recall the High Priest who wore white for the Yom Kippur Temple service (and on no other occasion)[85]
Many Ashkenazi Jewish men wear a kittel which, in addition to being white, symbolizes the seriousness of God's judgment on this day, as in some communities the deceased are buried wearing kittels.[94]
Yom Kippur is honored in the same ways as Shabbat and other holidays, to the extent permitted. Thus, the house is cleaned ahead of time, and the table covered with a nice tablecloth, even though it will not be used for eating. The synagogue is cleaned ahead of time, and all the lights left on. One bathes before Yom Kippur, and clean clothes are worn. Smelling pleasant smells is allowed on Yom Kippur, so many make a point of smelling pleasant spices throughout the day.[91]
In most communities, candles are lit just before Yom Kippur, as is done before Shabbat. However, there were communities which had the custom not to light candles when Yom Kippur falls on a weekday (when it falls on Shabbat, everyone agrees that there is an obligation to light just like any other Sabbath), and therefore the Halachic authorities debate whether or not a blessing is recited on this lighting.[95]
It is traditional for parents to give their children a special blessing before beginning the Yom Kippur prayers.[96] Those whose parents have died light a yahrzeit candle in their memory before Yom Kippur begins.[97]
Breaking of the fast
[edit]Following the fast, Sephardic Jewish communities traditionally serve a drink made from melon seeds similar to the Turkish sübye.[98][99] Turkish Jews refer to it as subiye, while Greek Jews call it pepitada.[100] This is followed by coffee with milk and biscochos (savory ring-shaped cookies), pieces of bread dipped in olive oil and za'atar alongside tomato, and later, chicken cooked with dry quinces or plums.[99]
Prayer services
[edit]The Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day which has three prayer services (Shacharit, Mincha, and Maariv), or a Shabbat or Yom Tov which has four prayer services (those three, plus Mussaf), Yom Kippur has five prayer services (those four, plus Ne'ila, the closing prayer).[101] The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins (Vidui),[20] and a unique prayer dedicated to the special Yom Kippur avodah (service) of the Kohen Gadol (high priest) in the Holy Temple in Jerusalem.[102] The Yom Kippur prayer services include additional poems (piyyutim) and petitions for forgiveness (selichot). Notable poems recited include Avinu Malkeinu, Unetanneh Tokef (in Eastern Ashkenazic and Italian communities), Ki Anu Amecha (in Ashkenazic communities, although the order of the verses varies between communities), the Ten Martyrs (in Eastern Ashkenazic and some Western Ashkenazic communities), HaAderet v'HaEmunah (in Ashkenazic communities), and Mareh Kohen (in Ashkenazic communities). If Yom Kippur falls on Shabbat, Avinu Malkeinu is recited by Ashkenazic only during the Ne'ila prayer service, whereas the Sephardic and Italian rite recite it as normal at Shacharit and Mincha.
Many married Ashkenazi Orthodox men wear a kittel, a white robe-like garment for evening prayers on Yom Kippur, also used in Eastern European communities by men on their wedding day.[103][104] They also wear a tallit (prayer shawl), which is typically worn only during morning services.[105]
Order of prayers
[edit]Before the beginning of Yom Kippur, many Jews recite the optional Tefillah Zakkah ('the pure prayer'), in which (among other topics) one declares that they forgive anyone who has harmed them in the past, "except for damages which can be recovered in court, and except for those who say: I will harm him and he will forgive me", asks God not to punish anyone who has been so forgiven, and asks God to show similar graciousness in forgiving their own sins.[106]
Like all Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur begins in the evening, and the evening prayer (Maariv) is preceded by the special Kol Nidre (described below) prayer.
The next morning, the morning prayer (Shacharit) is recited. The Torah reading is from Leviticus 16, describing the Yom Kippur Temple service and the laws of the day. The Yom Kippur Torah reading is divided into six portions, and seven on the Sabbath. The Haftarah is from Isaiah 57:14–58–14, according to which God will ignore the prayers of one who fasts while continuing to perform evil deeds. In most communities, Yizkor is then recited.
Next is the added prayer (Mussaf) as on all other holidays. The highlight of this prayer is the Avodah recitation, where the prayer leader recounts the Yom Kippur Temple service by which the High Priest would once obtain atonement from God in the Temple in Jerusalem. Other notable additions to Yom Kippur Mussaf in the Eastern Ashkenazic rite include the Unetanneh Tokef and Ten Martyrs poems.
While the original custom was for the Yom Kippur prayer service to take the entire day with no break, in recent years some have instituted a short break after Mussaf before the next prayers, which last until the conclusion of the fast.
Next is the afternoon prayer (Mincha) and a Torah reading. The Haftarah that follows is the entire Book of Jonah, which has as its theme the story of God's willingness to forgive those who repent.[107] The service concludes with the Ne'ila ("closing") prayer, which begins shortly before sunset, when the "gates of prayer" will be closed. After Ne'ila, Yom Kippur comes to an end with a recitation of Shema Yisrael and the blowing of the shofar,[102] which marks the conclusion of the fast[105] and symbolizes freedom from sin.[108] Finally, the brief weekday Maariv prayer is recited, before the recitation of Havdalah.
Kol Nidre
[edit]Before sunset on Yom Kippur eve, worshipers gather in the synagogue. The cantor stands with two community members at his sides, and chants the Kol Nidre prayer (Aramaic: כל נדרי, English translation: 'All vows'). It is recited in a dramatic manner, before the open ark, with an Ashkenazic melody that dates back to the 16th century.[109] Kol Nidre is recited in Aramaic, except in the Italian and Romaniote rites where it is recited in Hebrew.
Then the service continues with the evening prayers (Ma'ariv) and an extended Selichot service.[111]
Avodah
[edit]The Avodah ('service') passage in the Musaf prayer recounts in detail the Yom Kippur Temple service which was once performed in the Temple in Jerusalem. This passage traditionally features prominently in both the liturgy and the religious thought of the holiday.[102] During its recitation, Jews "imagine themselves in place of the priests when the Temple stood".[112]
This traditional prominence is rooted in the Babylonian Talmud's description of how to attain atonement following the destruction of the Temple in tractate Yoma. The recitation poetically describes the High Priest's confessions of his and the people's sins, his entry into the Holy of Holies, his sending away of the scapegoat, and all other parts of this day's complex Temple service.[111] A variety of liturgical poems are added, including a poem recounting the radiance of the High Priest after exiting the Holy of Holies, as well as prayers for the speedy rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of sacrificial worship.
In most Orthodox and some Conservative synagogues, the entire congregation prostrates themselves at each point in the recitation where the High Priest would pronounce God's holiest name (during recitation of Leviticus 16:30).[113] These three times, plus in some congregations the Aleinu prayer during the Musaf Amidah on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah, are the only times in Jewish services when Jews engage in prostration (except for some Yemenite Jews and talmidei haRambam ('disciples of Maimonides') who may prostrate themselves on other occasions during the year).
Orthodox liturgies include prayers lamenting the inability to perform the Temple service and petitioning for its restoration, which Conservative synagogues generally omit. In some Conservative synagogues, only the Hazzan (cantor) engages in full prostration. Some Conservative synagogues abridge the recitation of the Avodah service to varying degrees, and some omit it entirely. Reconstructionist services omit the entire service as inconsistent with modern sensibilities.
Confession
[edit]As confession is a core aspect of repentance,[114] confession (or vidui) is a major part of the Yom Kippur prayer services. A confession is recited ten times on Yom Kippur, twice in each of the five standard prayers. In each prayer service, the confession is recited once by the individual in their silent prayer, and again communally during the cantor's repetition of the Amidah. (The Maariv prayer has no repetition, so the second confession is instead recited in the communal Selichot recitation which follows the silent prayer.) Confession is recited an 11th time by individuals in the Mincha prayer of Yom Kippur eve, before the beginning of the holiday, and in some communities this is repeated by the Chazzan.
The Yom Kippur confession text consists of two parts: a short confession beginning with the word Ashamnu (אשמנו, 'we have sinned'), which is a series of words describing sin arranged according to the aleph-bet (Hebrew alphabetic order), and a long confession, beginning with the words Al Cheyt (על חטא, 'for the sin'), which is a set of 22 acrostics, in some communities double acrostics, also arranged according to the aleph-bet, enumerating a range of sins.[115] Al Cheyt is omitted in both recitations of the confession in Neilah.
In Reform Judaism
[edit]Reform synagogues generally experience their largest attendance of the year on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah for worship services. The prayer philosophy of Reform, as described in the introduction of the movement's High Holy Day prayerbook, Mishkan HaNefesh, is to reflect "varied theological approaches that enable a diverse congregation to share religious experience... with a commitment to Reform tradition, as well as [to] the larger Jewish tradition." A central feature of these Reform services is the rabbinic sermon. "For more than a century and a half in the Reform Movement," writes Rabbi Lance Sussman, "High Holiday sermons were among the most anticipated events in synagogue life, especially on the eve of Rosh Hashanah and Kol Nidre night."[116]
Observance
[edit]As one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur – for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the only times of the year during which they attend synagogue[117] – causing synagogue attendance to soar.
Observance in Israel
[edit]
Yom Kippur is a legal holiday in Israel. There are no radio or television broadcasts, airports are shut down, there is no public transportation, and all shops and businesses are closed.[118]
In 2013, 73% of the Jewish people of Israel said that they were intending to fast on Yom Kippur.[119] It is very common in Israel to wish "Tsom Kal" ([an] easy fast) or "Tsom Mo'il" ([a] benefiting fast) to everyone before Yom Kippur, even if one does not know whether they will fast or not.
It is considered impolite to eat in public on Yom Kippur or to play music or to drive a motor vehicle. There is no legal prohibition on any of these, but in practice such actions are almost universally avoided in Israel during Yom Kippur,[120] except for emergency services.
Over the last few decades, bicycle-riding and inline skating on the empty streets have become common among secular Israeli youths, especially on the eve of Yom Kippur in Tel Aviv.[121]
In 1973, an air raid siren was sounded on the afternoon of Yom Kippur and radio broadcasts were resumed to alert the public to the surprise attack on Israel by Egypt and Syria that launched the Yom Kippur War.[122]
Observance by athletes
[edit]Since the early 20th century, numerous Jewish athletes have opted not to participate in their sport on Yom Kippur if a sporting event coincides with the High Holy Day. Such incidents throw into sharp highlight the conflict many Jewish people face between social pressures and personal beliefs on a daily basis. Athletes observing Yom Kippur are often lauded for their decision not to play, which is also seen as a source of pride by many in the Jewish community.[123]
The most famous example of this phenomenon is Hall of Fame pitcher Sandy Koufax of Major League Baseball's Los Angeles Dodgers, who refused to play on Yom Kippur when it clashed with Game 1 of the 1965 World Series which Koufax, as the team's best pitcher, was slated to start. Koufax garnered national attention for his decision, which was seen as an example of the conflict between social pressures and personal beliefs.[124]
Similarly, another Baseball Hall of Famer, first baseman Hank Greenberg, garnered national attention in 1934 when he refused to play on Yom Kippur, even though his Detroit Tigers were in the middle of a pennant race and Greenberg himself was leading the league in runs batted in.[125] When Greenberg arrived in synagogue on Yom Kippur, the service stopped suddenly, and the congregation gave an embarrassed Greenberg a standing ovation.[126]
The examples of Greenberg and Koufax have been followed by numerous athletes, including fellow baseball players Shawn Green, Kevin Youkilis, Brad Ausmus, and Art Shamsky.[127][128][129] Outside of baseball, notable players to sit out Yom Kippur include: football player Gabe Carimi,[130] golfer Laetitia Beck,[131][132] chess player Boris Gelfand,[133] and professional wrestler Bill Goldberg.[134][135]
Recognition by the United Nations
[edit]Since 2016 the United Nations has officially recognized Yom Kippur, stating that from then on no official meetings would take place on the day.[136] In addition, the United Nations stated that, beginning in 2016, they would have nine official holidays and seven floating holidays of which each employee would be able to choose one.[136] It stated that the floating holidays will be Yom Kippur, Day of Vesak, Diwali, Gurpurab, Orthodox Christmas, Orthodox Good Friday, and Presidents' Day.[136] This was the first time the United Nations officially recognized any Jewish holiday.[136]
Date of Yom Kippur
[edit]Yom Kippur falls each year on the tenth day of the Jewish month of Tishrei, which is nine days after the first day of Rosh Hashanah. In terms of the Gregorian calendar, the earliest date on which Yom Kippur can fall is September 14, as happened most recently in 1899 and 2013. The latest Yom Kippur can occur relative to the Gregorian dates is on October 14, as happened in 1967 and will happen again in 2043. After 2089, the differences between the Hebrew calendar and the Gregorian calendar will result in Yom Kippur falling no earlier than September 15.[137] Gregorian calendar dates for recent and upcoming Yom Kippur holidays are:
- Sunset, 4 October 2022 – nightfall, 5 October 2022
- Sunset, 24 September 2023 – nightfall, 25 September 2023
- Sunset, 11 October 2024 – nightfall, 12 October 2024
- Sunset, 1 October 2025 – nightfall, 2 October 2025
- Sunset, 20 September 2026 – nightfall, 21 September 2026
See also
[edit]References
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